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Music Activities as a Cognitive Tool
for the Enhancement of
Analytical Perception, Comparison, and Synthesis
for the Blind Learner
In his quest for enhancing cognitive modifiability, Reuven Feuerstein et al (1980) designed a cognitive intervention program, known as Instrumental Enrichment (IE). The major goal of IE is to provide students with cognitive tools necessary for becoming independent learners. This goal reflects a philosophical belief which views human beings as open systems, accessible to change throughout their life spans, and responsive to conditions of remediation providing that the intervention is appropriately directed to the individual's need (Feuerstein, 2000). The regular IE program includes fourteen booklets of paper-and-pencil tasks aimed at promoting analytic perception, orientation in space and time, comparisons, and classifications (Roman Gouzman, 2000).
While cognitive deficiencies differ from individual to individual, certain skills, especially those related to spatial-reasoning, pose particular difficulties for the blind student (Gouzman and Kozulin, 2000). Within the Input phase, 1 these skills bear directly on the difference between the simultaneous character of visual perception and the successive character of tactile perception. This situation leads to both a narrowness of the perceptual field, in which a complete entity remains beyond the spontaneous grasp of the learner, as well as a blurred and sweeping perception, especially concerning size, direction, and proportions of two-dimensional tactile images. Lacking exploratory methods, students refrain from spontaneous exploration, resulting in a lack of objective references and critiques. This in turn leads to difficulties in assessing the precise proportions of parts within a whole. In the Elaboration phase, we find impaired spontaneous comparative behavior, difficulties in the integration of several sources of information, and an episodic grasp of reality. Once again, whereas seeing individuals also suffer from these impairments, the problem is more severe among students with special needs. Finally, in the Output phase, responses tend to be egocentric, often communicated in a personal type of shorthand, incomprehensible to most people. Moreover, activities related to perceptual transport, including two-dimensional orientation in space tasks that include position, context, and instructions, do not emerge spontaneously.2
Fortunately, Roman Gouzman's unique tactile version of Feuerstein's IE program offers blind students an intervention program that targets these specific problems.3By providing the student with tactile imaging on micro-capsule paper, he gains access to graphs, pictures, diagrams, and maps, sources of information previously inoperative. The tactile modality also enables him to link verbal concepts with schematic perceptual images, organize exploratory activities, develop measuring devices, and coordinate sensory-motor techniques. Most important, the student practices converting the results of his exploration into quasi-simultaneous mental perception, a cognitive ability previously inaccessible to him (Gouzman and Kozulin, 2000: 20-29, Gouzman, 2000:30-36).
In a more general context, past and ongoing research projects show that knowledge gained from music training bears on spatial-temporal processes (Rauscher, 1999: 35). Such processes are used in tasks that require combining separate elements of an object into a single whole by arranging them in a spatial order that matches a mental image. Cognitive skills required for such tasks include spatial imagery, temporal ordering, and symmetrical recognition (Rauscher, 1999:37). These activities possibly relate to music because the elements of a musical piece are also organized in space and time. Specifically, Rauscher reports that following music training or keyboard lessons, the spatial-temporal scores of children improved substantially.4
In view of these findings, I would like to propose music as a modality for cognitive assessment and therapy of the visually impaired. My hypothesis suggests that much as tactile tasks enable the visually impaired to develop mental images, so focused listening exercises stimulate mental representation. Moreover, active tasks, such as improvisation, engage students in dynamic learning experiences, as they create spatial-temporal frameworks.
The following case study describes possibilities for this type of work.
Case Study
Daniel 5 is a twenty-three year old young English man, who was born with severe visual impairment and is today totally blind. Highly intelligent and motivated, his pragmatic vocabulary includes concepts related to spatial orientation (left, right, up, down, center, center-left, etc.). He has mastered Braille, and has achieved average grades in arithmetic, science, French, business education, and general computer skills. In addition, he is particularly gifted in music. When he was three years old, his guardian parents recognized that he had perfect pitch, and he has received music lessons on and off ever since. In the summer of 2000, Daniel joined a conference sponsored by the International Center for the Enhancement of Learning Potential, Jerusalem, under the auspices and direction of Reuven Feuerstein. The center offers courses in Instrumental Enrichment to students and teachers from around the world. Having heard on the BBC about Gouzman's revised version for the blind learner, Daniel and his mother came to Israel in the hope of furthering Daniel's cognitive development.
Initial work with Daniel revealed certain deficient cognitive functions, many of which are common to blind learners. Generally speaking, they resulted from a sequential, episodic rather than a holistic perception of reality. Hindering Daniel's exploratory behavior, such problems resulted in impulsive and unsystematic investigations, preventing him from considering several sources of information at once. Moreover, the lack of stable systems of reference by which to organize space resulted in a blurred and sweeping perception and in difficulties to differentiate between relevant and irrelevant factors. Finally, Daniel's responses vacillated between trial and error and mental blocking. Despite an adequate vocabulary, his verbal definition of abstract concepts remained inaccurate.
In conjunction with intensive sessions in IE, Daniel also received music lessons. The auditory sessions were designed to reinforce the objectives targeted in the tactile assessment, namely, to counter episodic behavior, enhance Gestalt perception, provide tools for analytic perception and classification, and promote hierarchical and hypothetical thought processes.
Session I
Before listening to two complete, short selections, Daniel was introduced to three techniques that define musical form:
1. Repetition-creates a sense of unity, balance and symmetry.
2. Contrast-provides variety
3. Variation-keeps some elements of a musical thought while changing others. These terms introduce the vocabulary necessary for the mastery of the tasks. 6Selection I: Harold Arlen (1905-1986), Song, "Somewhere over the Rainbow" (1938) 7
This engaging melody features a close text-music relationship that reduces the abstract nature of the task.
Task: To determine which element-repetition, contrast, or variation-determines the form of the song.
Mediation: The entire song was played twice. Daniel was advised to follow the development of the song episodically, but to postpone identifying the form until after hearing the complete song. Upon reflection, Daniel discovered that the song opens with a main melody (A), continues with a contrasting section (B), and concludes with a repetition of the main melody. Thus, a mental image of a ternary form emerged. Daniel then continued to explain the sources of contrast between the first and second sections. He recognized that the speech-like melody of the second section, its quicker rhythms and repeated notes contrasted with the melodious, free flowing character of the first section. Finally, when asked how the text portrays the music, he perceptively noted that the opening leap in the melody successfully conveys the affect of the accompanying word "somewhere." Daniel thus coordinated between two sources of information: the text, and the music.
Selection II: Peter Ilyich Tchaikovsky (1840-1893), Dance of the Reed Pipes from The Nutcracker Suite (1892)
Objectives: To determine the form of an instrumental selection that does not include a text. This task requires a higher level of abstract thinking than was required in Example 1.
Task: Once again, Daniel was asked to follow the "active-path" 8 of the music, noting its goals and points of articulation, before commenting on the form of the entire piece. Thus, he practiced differentiating between multiple points of information, and relating only to those most relevant to his specific task. In many ways, the process of exploration used here recalled his work with the "complex figure," as points of articulation resembled the angles of the geometric form. 9
While listening to the piece, Daniel focused first on its sound. He acknowledged the contrast between the opening low strings, the high melody of the flutes, and the hollow sound of the English horn. However, what followed constituted a greater contrast. Here, the composer introduced a trumpet melody, played together with brasses and cymbals. Following this section, the flutes, accompanied by the strings, returned. Based once again on contrast and repetition, Daniel determined the ternary form of the piece. This exercise required a finer level of hypothetical thinking, based on hierarchical thought processes. Specifically, while each section contained inner contrast, the border between sections A and B was determined by the greater degree of contrast.
Selection III: Dave Brubeck (b. 1920), Unsquare Dance (1961)
This appealing piece of jazz music posed many challenges. Introducing repetition via variation, the unit repeated was an asymmetric, 7 beat rhythmic pattern presented by a pizzicato double bass and clapping:
Mediation: Physical movement functioned as a strategy for internalizing the abstract rhythmic pattern. Using clapping and foot stamping, Daniel grasped the rhythmic pattern, despite its unconventional seven beat meter. He also recognized processes of repetition via variation, as the pattern was heard in different contexts. Thus, Daniel practiced preserving constancies despite variations in other dimensions. Difficulties arose when asked to verbalize the types of variation that occurred each time. To help him in this task, the piece was played in smaller segments, stopping after each variation. Reinforcing the rhythmic pattern by imitating the accompaniment, Daniel soon realized that while the rhythmic pattern in the accompaniment remained stable throughout the piece, the melodies changed. He numbered three different melodies, presented first by the piano, then by the percussion instruments, and finally by a voice.
Summary Session I:
This session provided techniques by which Daniel could replace the common tendency to view information episodically with reflective images of the whole. By systematically following the movement of the piece, Daniel practiced strategic focusing. He differentiated between the elements of melody, rhythm, and sound, thereby considering several sources of information separately and as a unit. He successfully selected between relevant and irrelevant cues, enabling him to use inferential hypothetical thinking that led him to the correct answer (If we have contrast in melody, mode, and instrumentation, followed by repetition, then the form is ternary). By equipping Daniel with a basic vocabulary with which to discuss musical form, Daniel communicated his mental processes with precision and accuracy.
The skills practiced here bore directly on Daniel's sessions in which tactile exploration constituted the main modality. Thus, for example, much as an object's Gestalt emerges after having determined its boundaries, so musical form becomes apparent once its points of articulation are identified. Moreover, it is impossible to determine an object's Gestalt or a musical piece's form before exploring the object in its entirety. To do this, one must avoid secondary breaking points, and concentrate on the abstract reflection of the whole. Finally, primary structures in music, resembling complex geometric forms, subdivide into subsections that feature their own internal organization. By establishing boundaries on the basis of a hierarchy of articulations, it becomes possible to differentiate between main and subsidiary sections.
Session II:
Task: Improvisation at the piano.
While the first session concentrated on gestalt and analytic perception, this session reversed the procedure, demonstrating means by which two parts may combine into a whole.
Description of task: Daniel was first given a harmonic bass that consisted of two phrases-the first ending on an open and the second on a closed cadence. These two parts were likened to a question and an answer. Daniel played the phrases on the piano, stopping after each one, and absorbing its function. Given his superior ear, and strong background in music, Daniel successfully transposed the pattern to different keys, varying its range and rhythmic profile. This exercise further demonstrated that when essentials remain constant, the variations do not alter the whole.
The next step involved turning the pattern into a harmonic bass and adding an improvised new melodic line above it. Here, too, the more complex texture did not alter the basic structure of the pattern. Following Daniel's free improvisation, he was surprised to discover that this harmonic pattern functions as the bass in the well known English song "Greensleeves." As a final exercise, Daniel created his own new pattern. Composing an open-open-closed progression, he transposed and varied his pattern while retaining its basic structure.
Summary Session II
While the focus of the first session was analytical, the second session promoted syntactical thinking. Individual components, incomplete in and of themselves, joined complimentary figures, creating a whole. Moreover, through improvisation, Daniel practiced the conservation of constancies. Most important, he became an active, creative partner, who initiated as well as reflected. To succeed in this challenge, a mental image of the pattern needed to be clearly represented in his mind.
Session III
This session dealt with analytic perception on a high level. It was more difficult than the previous sessions because Daniel was asked to separate between and evaluate musical elements. This required hierarchical arrangements, and hypothetical logic.
Selection I: Frédéric Chopin (1810-1849), Prelude in c minor, op. 28, no. 20 (1839)
Due to the introspective nature of this piece, Daniel encountered difficulties in differentiating between the musical elements of sound, melody, and rhythm. Repeated focused listening helped him to acquaint himself with the piece, and discern the elements. Thus, during the first listening exercise, Daniel sang the melody, the second time he tapped the rhythm without relating to specific pitches, and the third time he traced progressions of sound.
Following these three repetitions, Daniel concluded that while the melody and rhythm remained static throughout the piece, the sound gradually became softer and softer. Thus, sound determined an A A1 A2 variation form. The change in sound also altered the affect of the music, moving from a more extroverted expression to a very personal one. This exercise demonstrated the close relationship between musical structure and expression, linking the cognitive and the emotional.
Selection II: Igor Stravinsky (1882-1971), Firebird Suite, Finale (1919)
In this selection, as in the previous one, Daniel discovered that while the melody remained static throughout, changes in surface articulation and instrumentation divided the piece into two parts. In the first section, the connected notes created what he characterized as a sleepy affect, while in the second section detached notes projected a more lively expression. Moreover, the instruments in the first section featured the softer French horn, Violins, and woodwinds, while loud Brasses dominated the second section.
Selection III: Georges Bizet (1839-1875)-Farandole from L'Arlésienne Suite No. 2 (1879)
The final, most complex example introduced a new musical element-texture. Anticipatory mediation defined three types of texture: monophony, in which only one line of music is played; homophony, in which an accompaniment supports a melody; and polyphony, in which two independent melodic lines are heard simultaneously.
Task I: Daniel was asked to identify and sing the two themes presented in the piece and to characterize their affect. He did this with no difficulty, explaining that the first sounded like a march, while the second was lighter, resembling a dance.
Task II: Daniel was then asked to determine which musical element-melody or texture-determined the form of the piece. Daniel followed the unfolding of the ideas with great concentration, mostly in a sequential fashion. He identified the first theme, set in homophonic and polyphonic settings. Continuing to listen, he recognized the introduction of the second theme, played first by the woodwinds, and then by the full orchestra. Next, the first theme returned, this time alternating with the second theme. Finally, he observed that the piece concluded with a brilliant polyphonic setting of the two themes heard simultaneously.
Reflecting on his work, Daniel acknowledged the importance of melody, texture, and sound in the organization of the piece. However, revealing hierarchical judgment, he concluded that the melody was the most important element in determining the form. In keeping with this judgment, he subdivided the piece into four sections: one, featuring the first theme; two, the second theme; three, the two themes alternately; and four, the two themes simultaneously. Texture and sound functioned mainly as means for variation.
Summary Session III:
The most remarkable change that occurred during this session was Daniel's growing ability to relate to several sources of information simultaneously, and to choose from a pool of options the one that best suited him. Implementing Feuerstein's famous axiom, "One minute, let me think," he successfully exchanged episodic behavior and associative recall for clear judgment based on carefully identified, classified, and evaluated points of information.
Conclusions
Daniel's extraordinary progress during his short visit supports the potential that tactile and music modalities offer for the enhancement and modification of cognitive functions. Building on his motivation, sound though largely untrained mental functioning, sociable personality, and musical talent, the mediation aimed to equip him with new strategies that would enhance his cognitive performance. Carefully mediated exploratory strategies, involving analytical perception, syntactic thinking, differentiation, hypothetical logic, and hierarchical evaluations, assisted in transforming abstract concepts into clear mental images. Replacing episodic and intuitive responses with accurate answers based on precise methods of comparing and evaluating, Daniel learnt to deal with several sources of information, to differentiate between main and subsidiary sections, and to perceive Gestalt images of abstract entities. Most important, by becoming an active, creative partner, Daniel's learning experience transcended the immediate task at hand, increasing both his self-esteem and ability to function independently.
Pointing the way to further research, issues to be considered include:
1. How can listeners of average talent benefit from music lessons?
2. Daniel's impaired cognitive functions were addressed simultaneously in tactile and auditory modalities. Is music effective primarily in conjunction with other modalities or can it function independently?
3. What are specific leaning goals that can be enhanced by using a musical modality in addition to those discussed in this paper?
References
Bamberger, Jeanne. (1995) The Mind Behind the Musical Ear. How Children Develop Musical Intelligence. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press.
-----. "Turning music theory on its ear." International Journal of Computers for Mathematical Learning, 1: 33-55.
-----. Developing Musical Intuitions. (2000) New York: Oxford University Press.
-----. 1999. "Learning from the Children We Teach." Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education: 48-74.
Feuerstein, Reuven and Rafi Feuerstein. 2000. "MLE and IE as a Basis of the Education of the Blind." The Educator: 1-20.
Feuerstein, R., Y. R. and, M. Hoffman, and R. Miller. 1980. The Instrumental Enrichment. Baltimore, M.D.: University Park Press.
Gfeller, KE (1990). "Music as communication." In R. F. Unkefer (ed.) Music therapy in the treatment of adults with mental disorders: Theoretical bases and clinical interventions. New York: Schirmer.
Gfeller, K.E. and Thaut, M. H. (1999). "Music therapy in the treatment of mental disorders." In W. B. Davis, K.E. Gfeller and M. H. Thaut (eds.). An Introduction to Music Therapy Theory and Practice. Boston: Mcgraw Hill College.
Gouzman, Roman. 2000."The Instrumental Enrichment Program for the Blind Learners." The Educator: 30-37.
Gouzman, Roman and Alex Kozulin. 2000. "Enhancing Cognitive Skills in Blind Learners." The Educator: 20-29.
Graziano, A., Peterson, M. and Shaw, G. L. (1999). "Enhanced learning of proportional math through music training and spatial-temporal training." Neurological Research, 21: 139-52.
Kamien, Roger (1992). Music: An Appreciation. 5th edition. New York: Mcgraw-Hill, Inc.
Piaget, J. (1967). The Child's Conception of Space. New York: Basic Books.
Rauscher, Francis H. (1999). "Music Exposure and the Development of Spatial Intelligence in Children." Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education: 35-47.
Sears, W. W. (1968). "Processes in music therapy." In E. T. Gaston Music in Therapy. London: Collier-Macmillan.
Serafine, M.L. (1988). Music as Cognition. The Development of Thought in Sound. New York: Schirmer Books.
Thaut, M. H. and Smeltekop, R.A. (1990). "Psychosocial and neurophysioslogical aspects of music therapy interventions." In R. F. Unkefer (Ed.) Music therapy in the treatment of adults with mental disorders: Theoretical bases and clinical interventions. New York: Schirmer.
Notes
1 Input, Elaboration, and Output are three phases of the mental act. Input deficiencies are concerned with the quantity and quality of data gathering. The Elaboration phase includes deficiencies that impede the individual's efficient transformation of the available data. Output relates to inadequate communication of final solutions. For a full explanation of the cognitive functions see Feuerstien, 2000. Back
2 For a full explanation of these functions, and tactile means by which to improve them, see, Roman Gouzman and Alex Kozulin, "Enhancing Cognitive Skills in Blind Learners," (2000): 20-29. Back
3 For a review of the principles of Mediated Learning Experience, and an explanation of the goals of Instrumental Enrichment, see Reuven Feuerstein and Rafi Feuerstein, 2000: 1-20. Back
4 Following two years of keyboard instruction, three-year olds did far better than other children that did not receive music lessons in Magic Window, Gestalt Closure, Hand Movements, and Arithmetic. For a full discussion of these tests see Rauscher, 1999: 37-43. Back
5 The name used in this discussion is fictional. Back
6 In IE the teacher/mediator introduces the vocabulary, operations, and strategies necessary for the mastery of the tasks. These terms represent the content aspect of the program. See Feuerstein, p. 11. Back
7 The examples chosen for the listening examples are based on examples found in Roger Kamien, Music an Appreciation, 1992. Back
8 Active path is a phrase coined by Jane Bamberger, which relates to the internal time of an individual piece, as it progresses towards specific goals and points of articulation. See Jane Bamberger, 1995: 74. Back
9 The geometric figure is one of the basic tests administered during Feuerstein's LPAD dynamic assessment tests. Back
About the AuthorAdena Portowitz is a faculty member of the music department at Bar-Ilan University in Ramat-Gan, Israel, and has recently become interested in Prof. Feuerstein's method of assessing cognitive modifiability. She is interested in using music as a modality in testing cognitive functions. You can contact her via email at portowiz@mail.biu.ac.il.
Copyright © July 2001 New Horizons for Learning, all rights reserved.
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