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You
are here: Indigenous Science Practices Among Nigerian Women:
Implications For Science Education
Introduction
Science embraces every attempt of humans to explore, interpret and manage the natural world. It is dynamic and essentially concerned with the search and explanation of both regularities and irregularities in nature. It involves the quest for actions and reactions, causes and effects in the environment. The purpose of science is to transform the environment towards improving the general quality of life, thus making the world a better place in which to live. Science is primarily concerned with the intellectualization of facts and values in an unbiased manner (Samuel, 1996).
Every traditional society of the world possesses a form of science or technology which is employed in indigenous practices geared towards the satisfaction of basic needs. These informal practices (Ogunniyi ,1980; Samuel, 1996)) may be useful even in the face of modern science and technological advancements. Instead of rendering them obsolete in these societies, they can be refined and integrated in the knowledge and techniques of formal science. Because they constitute direct experiences with the immediate environment and with the natural world. they may be very useful to teachers and learners in enriching classroom science experiences and thereby facilitating teaching and learning. Howes, Jones & Josenthal (2004) remarked that classroom bound activities of science teaching should make room for practices that help teachers and students to connect more deeply to each other and the rest of the world.
Formal and informal sciences interact with one another. In Nigeria, both are practiced in different contexts and their linkage is advocated (Mejeha ,1992; Animola ,1992; Seweje ,2000) Although this perspective seems retrogressive considering the present pace of global scientific and technological advancement, the motive is crucial in orientating learners to perceive science as action taking place daily in the environment.
The application of informal scientific knowledge in solving problems in Nigeria also has significant economic value. It is particularly beneficial for women. Women in Nigeria carry out a number of indigenous science practices --often without understanding--as they aim at meeting life's challenges and satisfying basic needs. They are involved in these activities because of their peculiar roles and contributions to life sustenance. In Nigerian traditional society, these activities are indispensable and numerous. Azikiwe (1999) contended that women are directly responsible for the food consumed by the family, for the health, nutrition and educational needs of members of the family.
The education and training of women for status improvement is imperative because of the roles they play in the modeling and shaping of children's lives. Women are the nation builders and historically, culturally and biologically they are linked to life and nature (Shiva 1997). Women demonstrate informal science in diverse ways in the natural world. These activities are hidden or unrecognized but they can be sought out for probable articulation with formal science in order to enrich classroom learning experiences.
The immediate challenge was to appraise the indigenous practices among women and explore how they can be integrated with classroom learning. Therefore this project set out to investigate some of the practices and their popularity. It identified aspects of formal science knowledge that blended with these practices in order to sensitize society and science educators and encourage local and global awareness. The ultimate goal was to develop initiatives towards harmonizing and integrating indigenous activities with documented formal science programs.
Against this background, the study addressed the following questions:
1. What women indigenous practices exist in the society and how common are they?
2. With what high school science concepts do these practices blend?Method
A descriptive approach was used to answer the two inquiry questions.
Two structured questionnaires were developed. The first was titled "Women Indigenous Practice Questionnaire". This instrument was a checklist of women's indigenous practices generated from oral interview and direct interactions with women in the community who were not part of the sample. Altogether, 13 practices were listed and respondents were requested to indicate the prevalence of these practices on a rating scale of very common, fairly common and not common.The second instrument titled "School Science Concepts in Women Indigenous Practices" asked school science teachers to fill in/ insert high school science concepts that blend with the 13 indigenous practices. The first draft of the women indigenous practice questionnaire was given to some specialists in science education both at the high school and higher institutions of learning for validation. After the final draft was produced, a test re test reliability of 0.73 was obtained.
Subjects. Participants in the study consisted of women (skilled and unskilled) who could read and write and high school science teachers. The stratified random sampling technique was used to select a total of 320 skilled and unskilled women between the ages of 25 – 55years from Yoruba land in Ogun State of Nigeria. The unskilled women were traders and apprentices, while the skilled were middle and working class from different organizations.
Science teachers were selected by purposive sampling from 15 selected schools in the area of study. They indicated that they understood the listed indigenous activities. Altogether, 85 male and female teachers of physics, chemistry, biology and agricultural science participated in the study.
Data Collection. The researcher administered the instruments in collaboration with science education undergraduate students. Respondents who requested explanation were guided through the questionnaire. They were collected immediately from the women participants, but the teachers were allowed to keep their copies for few days so that they could peruse the content well in order to provide adequate information.
Results and Discussion
The responses of women on the indigenous practices questionnaire were collated and simple percentages calculated for analysis. The results are shown in Table 1.
Table 1
The pattern of prevalence or commonness of indigenous practices among women is revealed. Although the responses in rating differ, most of the practices were rated as very common except two: child delivery practices; and food protection against diseases and pests by use of natural products like ashes. Eight out of the 13 practices were rated very common by more than 50 percent of respondents. These practices can be classified in the modern perspective as medical and agricultural. Some, too, are home chores.
In Nigerian society, some people embrace traditional medicine in the treatment of such ailments as fractures & wounds, fever, convulsion, diarrhea, infectious diseases that are observed in the study as common. The issue of traditional versus orthodox medical practices generated controversy among society members and orthodox medical practitioners in the past. Traditional medical organizations, in the bid to align their modes of operation with orthodox medicine, tend toward the following choices: traditional delivery practices in obstetrics & gynecology, but local treatment of bone fractures and wounds in orthopedic surgery, local treatment of children sickness, diseases and ailments in pediatrics as well as local treatment of infections, fever, and other ailments in general medicine. Today, the organizations have been professionalized and they operate under a unified and legally recognized body. The bodies strive to refine and modernize the modes of operation and activities.
The relevance of the various informal practices to science education for the enhancement of science teaching and learning is the area explored here, especially in research question two Teachers were given the list of indigenous practices and requested to list high school science concepts that blended with or related to each of these practices. Responses of the 85 school science teachers were sorted and categorized as summarized in Table 2.
Table 2
Table 2 above shows the linkages made by high / secondary school science teachers. Ten of the listed indigenous practices observed in the study were found by the teachers to have scientific elements. Most of these were judged common by the women as displayed on Table 1. The school science teachers provided rich insight into the existence of links between these practices and modern science by identifying school science concepts as shown. How to employ these common practices in order to enrich science teaching and learning in schools poses a challenge.
Magagula & Mazubiko (2004) advocated the indigenization of formal school curriculum with efforts to Africanize curricular at all levels of education. This is congruent with the attempt to bring learners of science closer to the immediate environment and it is consistent with the contention of Ogunniyi (1986) that a great number of African myths and beliefs have scientific explanations which cannot be ignored. Therefore, the sensitization of the society on the educational, social and medical relevance of these myths and beliefs has implication on the acquisition of scientific literacy and healthy development.
African Science educators have the challenge of searching and providing scientific explanations for traditional African culture, practices, beliefs or superstitions. One cannot under-estimate the hindrances to such efforts, among which is the reluctance of women and traditionalists to offer useful information or even volunteer assistance when requested for classroom practices. This is tied to the importance of the eradication of illiteracy. Much vital indigenous scientific knowledge may be suppressed if stakeholders are not properly orientated and given literacy skills.
Useful experiences in informal science practices can be tapped to ameliorate the problems faced by science teaching and learning at all levels. The different science concepts observed in the study cut across all levels of learning. It will therefore be of tremendous benefit to science education if the practices are well internalized and incorporated with classroom learning. The attempt will reduce the notion of science as abstract or as a bundle of facts and principles to be memorized by learners.
In current best practice in science education , science is activity (Hudson, 1994; West, Farmer & Wolf, 1991). School science is neither magic nor a bundle of abstract facts unrelated to out of school experiences (Mejeha, 1992; Seweje, 2000). It is a great task which requires urgent attention and all stake holders in science education from policy makers to implementers including parents must have input.
The positive and long lasting transformation of any society must start from the grassroots, therefore in imparting knowledge, teachers have to find ways of linking learner's knowledge of informal science to their knowledge of formal science. Teachers are immensely relevant in their roles, responsibilities and contributions towards the achievement of educational goals and objectives (Cwikla, 2004; Sim, 2004). They need to demonstrate professionalism and use well designed innovative teaching strategies in other to achieve their goals (Adams, 1993; Vasquez, 1998; Johnson &Johnson, 2001; Alebiosu, 2001). Therefore science teachers face the challenge of exploring ways of using rich teaching strategies that will blend the informal and formal sciences for classroom teaching. Having identified formal science concepts in informal/indigenous practices of women is commendable, but further steps entail teachers' resourcefulness in selecting approaches that will integrate both practices in classroom experiences.
This study carried out an investigation of women's informal science practices There are other indigenous activities carried out by men too, and some other practices used by both genders. Studies can also extend to science concepts relevant to the primary level. All these are very rich areas for inquiry of tremendous benefit to practicing school science teachers.
References
Adams, A. (1993). Games & role play. In P. Whittle, B. Gray, R. Hodzi & L.Manama. (Ed.), Innovative Ideas & Techniques for Science Educators in Africa. The Harare Generator: International Council of Scientific Unions (ICSU).
Alebiosu, K. A. (2001). Cooperative learning and students' affective learning outcome in Nigerian chemistry classrooms. IfePsychologia: An International Journal. 9(2), 135-142.
Animola, R. B. (1992). Designing appropriate science & technology curriculum for national development. In S. Oriaifo & V. Gbenedio. (Ed.),. Science, Technology and Society: The Nigeria Experience. Benin City, University of Benin press.
Azikiwe, U. (1999). Relevance of adult education program to women for sustainable development. Nigerian Journal of Curriculum Studies. 6(1), 44-50.
Cwikla, J. (2004). Less experienced mathematics teachers report. What is wrong with their professional support system? Teachers & Teaching: Theory & Practice. 10(2), 179-197.
Howes, E.; Jones, K. M. & Josenthal, B. (2004). Cultivating environmental connections in science teacher education: Learning through conversation. Teachers & Teaching: Theory & Practice. 10(5), 553-573.
Hudson, D. (1994). Developing pupils skills. In R. Levinson. (Ed.), Teaching science. Routledge. London.
Johnson, R. & Johnson, D. (2001). Cooperative Learning and Conflict Resolution. Retrieved September 4, 2005 from http://www.newhorizons.org/strategies/cooperative/johnson.htm
Magagula, C. M. & Mazibuko, E. D. (2004). Indigenization of African formal education systems. Retrieved September 2, 2005, from http://www2.ncsu.edu/ncsu/aern/inafriedu.htm
Mejeha, I. M. (1992). Integrative approach to science teaching. The future challenge. The Nigeria Teacher Today. 1(2), 179-187.
Ogunniyi, M. O. (1986). Teaching science in Africa. Ibadan. Salem Media.
Samuel, T. (1996). Towards a result-oriented science and technology policy for Nigeria: A new agenda. Studies in Education. 2(1), 26-30.
Seweje, I. O. (2000). The challenge of science teaching in Nigeria today. Journal of Educational Foundations and Management. 1(1), 208-220.
Shiva, S. (1997). Women in nature in M. Visranathan. (Ed.), Women, Gender and Development. Canada. Fernwood Pub Ltd.
Sim, C. (2004). The personal as pedagogical practice: Teachers & teaching: Theory & Practice. 10(4), 351-364.
Vasquez, J. (1998). Teacher education. The teachers' role in inquiry centered classroom experiences. Science Teacher Association of Nigeria Bulletin. 15(2). 8-10.
West, C., Farmer, J. & Wolff, P. (1991). Instructional design: Implications from Cognitive Science. Prentice Hall.
Kehinde A. Alebiosu (Ph.D.) is an Associate Professor of Science Education and the director of the Institute of Education, Olabisi Onabanjo University, Ago Iwoye, Nigeria. Her teaching and research focus on curriculum and instruction, teacher education and science-based courses with specific interest in practical approaches to science teaching strategies.
She can be reached at P.O.Box 4622, G. P.O. Ibadan. Nigeria. or e-mail: dromokenny@yahoo.com.
©January 2006 New Horizons for Learning
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